The Día de Muertos celebration is really relevant for El Carrizal and neighboring communities, since it combines elements from indigenous as well as European customs. This festivity invites both living and dead relatives to celebrate life and death, to value our path here through this earth to the land of the Dead. The conceptualization of this idea is embodied in the Altares de Muertos (Altars for the Dead), which mix Catholic and indigenous beliefs.

During these days, altars are built in honor of the dead. They are composed of flowers, food, candles, and other elements. The conventional altar has nine steps, which in the pre-Hispanic tradition represented the nine stages that the departed had to descend in order to arrive in the domains of Mictlantecuhtli (God of Death). Nowadays, people also place an image of a saint, Catholic Virgin, or Jesus Christ on the upper step. On the middle steps, they position food and drinks that the deceased used to enjoy. On the lowest level, a path of flowers is placed from the house to the street; this path indicates the course the deceased needs to follow in order to reach his or her living relatives.

Different altars made by local high-school students

Our job at the community consisted in evaluating altars at the contests held at local schools. These activities are aimed to teach students the value of their own ancestral traditions and avoid the replacement of these celebrations with foreign customs, such as Halloween.

Students re-signify traditional celebrations by including some external influences that renew the combination between indigenous, Hispanic, and modern elements.

Durante estos días, se erigen Altares en honor a los muertos, para los que se necesita comprar flores, comida, velas, etc. El altar convencional debe componerse de 9 escalones, los cuales en la tradición prehispánica representaban los 9 pisos que el difunto debe descender antes de llegar con el señor de la muerte, Mictlantecuhtli. Actualmente se coloca en el escalón más alto la imagen de algún santo o virgen católica o la de Jesús. En los escalones intermedios se ubican las distintas comidas y bebidas que al difunto le gustaban y en el nivel más bajo un camino de flores que parte de la casa con dirección a la calle; con el fin de indicarle al muerto el camino que debe de seguir para poder llegar con sus familiares vivos.

Diferentes altares creados por alumnos de escuelas preparatorias locales

Nuestra labor con la comunidad esta semana consistió en ser jurados en los concursos de elaboración de altares de muertos que se realizan las escuelas locales; que tienen por objeto enseñar a los estudiantes la importancia de esta tradición. Se intenta revalorar este legado y evitar el reemplazo de los festejos tradicionales por celebraciones como el Halloween.

Los alumnos re-significan los festejos tradicionales con algunas influencias externas, lo que renueva la mezcla entre lo español, lo indígena y lo moderno.

The first step in any archaeological research must be based in curiosity: the formulation of questions. Although this might sound very simple, there are a couple of issues to consider 1) the questions will be guiding the whole process and therefore it must be coherent with them; 2) the questions imply theories that the researcher has to take into account in order to avoid contradictions.

The next step is the development of methodological strategies and the selection of the best suitable techniques. In other words, this step represents the practical ways through which the archaeologist will answer the initial questions. For example, if we know that domestic units of certain archaeological site measure 20 meters across but we ignore their location, we need to establish a surface methodology and technique (pedestrian survey) in accordance to that information.

Pedestrian survey, archaeologists are walking the terrain at a 20 meter distance between each other.

Another crucial step is the analysis and classification of materials. Analysis actually starts in the field, since the way archaeologists collect artifacts will influence the sample they will classify afterward. Finally, explanation of the results needs to be related to all previous steps, since theory goes through and beyond the research and researcher. Lack of coherence invalidates our work.

Even though archaeology is one of the most exciting social sciences, we mustn’t forget the complexity of its research processes, which always need to be coherent, from the questions we formulate in the beginning to the answers we build upon all the previous investigation steps.

Archaeological research (PAC Archive)

El primer paso debe ser el planteamiento de las preguntas a resolver. Esto puede parecer bastante simple, sin embargo hay que considerar que: 1) las preguntas son las guías de todo el proceso y por lo tanto el mismo debe ser congruente con ellas y 2) los interrogantes se inscriben dentro de corrientes teóricas que el investigador debe tener en cuenta para no mezclar planteamientos contradictorios.

El siguiente paso es el desarrollo de la metodología de trabajo y de las técnicas a implementar, es decir, la manera en que se harán las cosas para poder resolver las preguntas. Por ejemplo, si sabemos que las unidades habitacionales de cierto asentamiento arqueológico miden en promedio 20 metros de diámetro pero ignoramos donde están; debemos establecer la metodología del reconocimiento de superficie y como técnica el recorrido pedestre (personas caminando a cierta distancia una de otra buscando elementos arqueológicos) de acuerdo con esta información.

Recorrido pedestre: los arqueólogos caminando a 20 metros de distancia entre sí.

Otro paso crucial es el análisis de los materiales. Su congruencia con las preguntas iniciales comienza desde su recolección en campo, ya que la forma de seleccionar influye directamente en nuestra muestra.

Finalmente, la explicación de los resultados también debe de guardar relación con todos los pasos anteriores, ya que no podrán ir en contra de los planteamientos teóricos que permean a la investigación y al investigador, de lo contrario se caería en una incongruencia que invalidaría nuestro trabajo.

Cuadro que resume el proceso de investigación arqueológica (Archivo del PAC)

Por todo lo anterior, si bien la Arqueología es una de las disciplinas más apasionantes dentro de las Ciencias Sociales, no debemos de perder de vista la complejidad de sus procesos de investigación, que deben guardar siempre una coherencia desde las simples preguntas iniciales hasta las repuestas; que son producto de la suma de todos los pasos anteriores.

There is a common mistake or misconception among students about considering only one issue about architecture when relating it to archaeology: the construction techniques. Although this topic is of great relevance, architecture can contribute to archaeology in other ways, for example through the study of formal arrangement of buildings and settlement patterns. Both disciplines take into account the way societies organized and transformed landscape, topography, and the general environment. Formal arrangements are the way buildings were distributed, while settlement patterns studies deals with the general overview of the settlement distribution. Hence, archaeology and architecture both concern broad traditions, thoughts, and ideas of the ancient peoples.

During her excavations at El Carrizal in 1961 and 1962, Bertha Cuevas had the chance to liberate (that is the technical term for uncover) a complete mound (54). Her work showed that carrizaleños were highly skilled builders, who used local resources (such as calcareous stone) for construction. They prepared the stone as big bricks creating walls arranged in squares. They filled these squares with a mixture of soil, ceramic fragments, and small rocks. The squares had stucco floors.

During our survey, we detected that all the buildings are quadrangular. We also found a couple of structures that allowed us to compare the construction techniques with the ones found by Cuevas. Preliminary results seem to indicate that this tradition was started during the Formative and continued through the Classic.

Apart from that, we have done some interpretations regarding the formal arrangement of the buildings at El Carrizal. Generally speaking, we could say that they placed their houses and civic-ceremonial structures in lines oriented West-East. This W-E pattern is present in the majority of the occupation we have reported through the 13.2 square kilometer area of our research. Moreover, the W-E tradition is unlike the Gulf Lowlands pattern, which has a North-South base. These issues arouse many questions: Is the way people arrange their settlements and indicator of social structures and religious conceptions? Or is it a combination of these factors with the regional geographic features? We’ll have to face all these questions are challenges during the next surveys and excavations.

M2076, surveyed during our first field season.

Montículo 54, casi completamente liberado (Cuevas 1970)

Entre los estudiantes, generalmente existe un error muy común, que consiste en considerar solamente un aspecto de la Arquitectura al relacionarla con la Arqueología: las técnicas constructivas. A pesar de que este tema tenga por sí mismo una relevancia muy alta, la Arquitectura también puede contribuir a la Arqueología a través del estudio de los arreglos formales de los edificios, así como de los patrones de asentamiento; por citar dos ejemplos. Ambas perspectivas toman en cuenta la forma en que las sociedades organizaron y transformaron su paisaje, topografía y ambiente en general. Los arreglos formales se refieren a la forma en que los edificios fueron distribuidos, mientras que los patrones de asentamientos estudian en general la distribución de la ocupación en forma sincrónica y diacrónica. Por lo tanto, ambos enfoques están relacionados a tradiciones, pensamientos e ideas de los pueblos pretéritos.

En El Carrizal, Bertha Cuevas tuvo la oportunidad de liberar (término técnico para descubrir) un montículo completo (el 54) durante sus excavaciones de 1961 y 1962. Su investigación mostró que los carrizaleños eran constructores bien calificados, que utilizaron recursos locales (como las rocas calizas) para sus edificaciones. El proceso incluía preparar estas rocas como grandes ladrillos para sus paredes, que tomaban la forma de cuadrados rellenos de tierra, fragmentos cerámicos y pequeñas piedras. También contaban con pisos de estuco.

Montículo 38, excavado por Cuevas (1970)

Durante nuestro reconocimiento de superficie, detectamos que todos los edificios eran cuadrangulares. También encontramos un par de estructuras que nos permitieron hacer comparaciones acerca de las técnicas constructivas. Los resultados preliminares indican que esta tradición se inició durante el Formativo y continuó durante el Clásico.

Además, hemos ya hecho algunas interpretaciones tentativas acerca del arreglo formal de los edificios de El Carrizal. En general, podríamos decir que las casas y estructuras cívicoceremoniales eran construidas en líneas orientadas Oeste-Este. Este patrón O-E está presente en la mayoría de las ocupaciones reportadas durante nuestra investigación que abarcó 13.2 kilómetros cuadrados. Por otra parte, la tradición O-E contrasta con el patrón de la Planicie Costera, que es Norte-Sur. Estos temas generan muchas preguntas: ¿el arreglo de los asentamientos es un indicador de las estructuras sociales y las concepciones religiosas? ¿O se trata de una combinación de estos factores combinados con las características geográficas regionales? A través de los siguientes reconocimientos de superficie y excavaciones, deberemos enfrentar estos desafiantes interrogantes.

M2076, reportado durante la primera temporada de reconocimiento de superficie.

Cattle skull that, together with three other cattle skulls and much more material, was used to block a channel at the Macellum

Animal remains found at Tepe Düzen revealed that the economy was based mainly on the herding and breeding of sheep and goats, and to a lesser extent of cattle and pigs. Sheep and goats are present in about equal proportions and both species provided products, such as milk and wool. Since there is no indication that cattle were frequently used for heavy duty work, these animals were probably raised for their meat and milk. The transport of goods was mainly carried out by donkeys. Wild animals make up a very small part of the faunal assemblage. Nevertheless, remains of red deer an fallow deer are more frequently observed than at Sagalassos, suggesting environmental changes or higher human pressure at the transition from the Iron Age to the Imperial period.

The excavations at the Colonnaded Street have yielded a large collection of animal remains, found in and nearby the fountain along the street. The bones mainly derive from cattle and to a lesser extent from sheep and goat; pig remains are almost completely absent. The skeletal elements of cattle are not evenly distributed within this collection and consist mainly of fragments of mandibles, ribs and the long bones of the fore and hind limbs. In the case of sheep and goat, many horn cores have been collected. This material can interpreted as the refuse of slaughtering and butchery activities. Similar assemblages have been found in the past at the Lower Agora and within the Odeon. These dumps show how abandoned buildings or infrastructure were used to deposit waste by the end of the 6th – 7th century AD.

Bones of red deer from Tepe Düzen

The excavations at the Domestic Area, on the other hand, yielded this year a bone assemblage that has been interpreted as consumption refuse, more precisely as table and kitchen refuse. This assemblage showed a very high percentage on bones of pig and chicken, followed by sheep and goat. Hare, wild birds (chukar, pigeon, duck) and fish are also well represented. The high abundance of pig remains is very striking and can possibly be linked to the high status of the consumer. Other assemblages of kitchen- and table refuse from the Domestic Area were relatively less rich in pig remains.

In the past remains of eagle owl pellets were collected at the Roman Baths. After identification of the bone remains, the minimum number of preys were calculated. It was concluded from this number that the eagle owl occupied (part of) the building for at least two breeding seasons (De Cupere et al. 2009). More material from eagle owl pellets has now been found in the Roman Baths, indicating that the eagle owl must have been breeding here for an extended period of time. Preys included among others hare, hedgehog, jerboa, migratory hamster, chukar and pigeon. The occupation by eagle owl predates the final, human abandonment of the town and illustrates how this large predator was surprisingly able to live and breed in close vicinity of man.

In the following a brief record is given, by excavation area, of the archaeobotanical finds identified thus far:

Domestic Area
The numerous samples collected from this area yielded a wide diversity of material. The most common crop plant in the samples is the hulled barley (Hordeum vulgare var vulgare). Also numerous are the finds of leaves of fir (Abies cilicica – Figure 1) whereas only few were recovered of pine (Pinus sp.) and cedar (Cedrus libani). These finds indicate that the deposited charred material most probably represents the refuse of domestic ovens or fire places mixed with some cooking remains. Evidence for degradation and disturbance of the vegetation are the frequently occurring Astragalus sp. (Figure 2), which most probably originated from the thorny species of this genus belonging to the anthropogenic induces steppe in the study area.

Figure 2: Seed of astragalus (Astragalus sp.) – DA1, locus 85, scale 1 mm

Roman Baths
The samples studied until now from RB1 originate from loci 114 and 120 and contained no seed/fruit material. The material from RB2, locus 33, service rooms, consists only of coniferous wood and its homogeneity indicates that it probably originates from construction wood. This hypothesis should be confirmed after further analysis of the wood in laboratory conditions.

Macellum
Five samples from the 2008 excavations from the Macellum were sorted this year and in most cases were rich in material. In all of them barley and bread/macaroni wheat were found. Also some remains of fruit plants like grape (Vitis vinifera) and mulberry (Morus sp.) were available. Of special interest is the find of stone pine (Pinus pinea – Figure 3). It originates from room 7, locus 169. The stone pine was highly estimated by the Romans and was in many cases part of rituals and burial offerings.

Stone pine (Pinus pinea) – fragment of seed, MAC, locus 169, scale 3 mm

Colonnaded Street
The two samples (locus 200 and 212) that were analysed until now from the Colonnaded Street are rich in various materials. The prevailing plant macroremains are grains of barley. In one of the samples from locus 200 also fragments of the fruit of almond (Amygdalus sp.) were available. Considering their morphological features and their size this were most probably remains of the cultivated form of almond, but it should be stressed that as the remains are preserved as fragments it is not possible to say with certainty if this was cultivated almond or some of the wild forms growing in the study area.

Potters Quarter
From the samples from the PQ the richest are the two originating from locus 222, space 9. In these samples barley and wheat were found and together with them also remains of different fruits. These are walnut (Juglans regia), plum (Prunus sp.), and elder (Sambucus cf. nigra). They represent typical refuse of food consumption. For this speaks also the absence on any crop processing remains among the finds.

Bouleuterion
The 4 samples studied until now were rich in wood charcoal, but almost no seed and fruit remains were preserved.

Tepe Düzen
The numerous archaeobotanical samples from Tepe Düzen inform us about the main crop plants used on this Iron Age site. They consist of the typical Late Iron Age cereal crops of the Mediterranean, namely bread wheat and hulled barley. This year also remains of hulled wheat – emmer were available. The spectrum of pulses represented by pea and bitter vetch in the previous excavation seasons was enlarged by chick pea (Cicer arietinum). This finds comes from a vessel from locus 26, vessel content in TD1. The potential oil crop Lalemantia sp. (Figure 4) was recovered in several samples again. This repeated evidence suggests that it cannot be excluded that it was used as oil crop during the occupation of Tepe Düzen. In the archaeobotanical samples also pit fragments of olive (Olea europea) (TD2, 48-18) and charred remains of whole fig (Ficus carica) fruit (TD2 48-24, 48-12) were available. The few remains of olive (until now this is the second olive stone fragment) in Tepe Düzen indicate that no processing of olives took place at the site.

We kept removing stones from the partition wall (the foundation has now been totally unearthed). In the fill at the southern part of floor, we found 12 vessels, most of which were handle-less conical cups, along with a bell-shaped cup, a miniature cup, and a milk jug. In addition, we discovered three grinders, a quartz crystal, some bones, and carbonized wood. Lastly, the excavation continued across the wall of room 14, which had been covered by the fallen stones.

Wall of room 14, area 1

We revealed several big fragments of burnt wood, which may come from fallen beams, as well as four cups and many bones. In the meantime, we opened a test trench under the floor of room 15, in order to see if there were any earlier phases. In total, we removed three layers, along with many sherds, carbonized wood, and a few bones. The second layer mainly contained sherds, as well as an accumulation of charcoal and small burnt stones. At the eastern side of the wall—in the passageway of the workshop complex—we found four vessels (three handle-less conical cups and a milk jug) and two grinders.

Finds unearthed from the fill at the south part of room 15’s floor

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Area 2

We tried to determine whether the courses of stones that were revealed last week were part of a wall or had just fallen there. We removed the surrounding soil, many large stones, and the underlying soil. Although we have not yet finished investigating the area, we think it is likely that this structure formed part of a wall. We also revealed a thick layer of lepidha (decomposed schist), which was used as an insulating material for floors and roofs. We found more than 10 complete vessels (mainly handle-less conical cups), which we removed during the last days of the excavation. In total, during the four weeks of the excavation, we unearthed 51 complete vessels and more than 50 fragmentary ones. Lastly, we uncovered a bronze brooch.

We removed large stones and the underlying soil from certain parts of area 2, in order to investigate any underlying stone structures.

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Area 3

We opened 14 more trenches this week and found nine vessels (mainly conical cups), ample sherds, and many pieces of carbonized wood. In addition, we unearthed several pieces of plaster, as well as great quantities of bones. One of the most interesting finds was a column base. The excavation that finished this week proved the existence of walls that were shown by the geomagnetic prospection, and helped us complete the existing ground plan for the Central Building.

Wall revealed after the excavation of area 3

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Rodolfo Parra analyzing with students

Laboratory with classified materials

Our team has already identified some foreign ceramic types such as differential firing from Tres Zapotes, Tres Zapotes Fine Grey, and Fine Buff from Los Tuxtlas. This has important implications since it might reflect the possible commercial relationships between El Carrizal and archaeological sites south of Veracruz.

Location of Carrizal, Trez Zapotes and Los Tuxtlas

Flakes stone artifacts are also being classified and the great number of flint and basalt flakes is worth mentioning. The quantity of obsidian is extremely low, an example of this are the only two prismatic blades that have been registered so far. Although we haven’t identified the location of the material sources, we believe, according to the geology and the presence or absence of different types of raw materials and their use, that flint and basalt sources were local whereas obsidian was imported from Puebla and Pico de Orizaba (the highest mountain in Mexico). The majority of the instruments are scrappers and flakes, which were used for cutting and scratching. This might imply that there wasn’t a specialized industry, but further research is needed.

This week we will continue with the analysis and we have been kindly invited by the Anthropology Deparment at the Universidad Veracruzana to give a couple of lectures. The first one is about El Carrizal’s architecture and the other one will be centered in surface survey methodologies. Maybe our next update will include information on these topics!

Rodolfo Parra con estudiantes analizando

Laboratorio con materiales clasificados

Entre los tipos cerámicos identificados y que destacan por las implicaciones que se pueden derivar de su identificación, se encuentran el llamado cocción diferencial de Tres Zapotes, Tres Zapotes gris fino y Bayo Fino de los Tuxtlas. Esto puede estar reflejando las posibles relaciones comerciales con sitios importantes del Sur del Estado de Veracruz, aunque será necesario investigar más al respecto.

Ubicación de carrizal, Tres Zapotes y los Tuxtlas

También se están analizando la lítica tallada y destaca la gran cantidad de lascas de silex y de rocas basálticas de grano muy fino. La cantidad de obsidiana hasta ahora analizada es extremadamente baja y se han presentado sólo un par de navajillas prismáticas. Aunque no se han localizado ninguna fuente de estos materiales creemos por la presencia-ausencia de los distintos artefactos que los yacimientos de silex y basalto son locales mientras Ubicación de carrizal, Tres Zapotes y los Tuxtlas que la obsidiana está siendo importada de Puebla y el Pico de Orizaba (la montaña más alta de México). Los raspadores, raederas burdas y lascas utilizadas para cortar o rayar son los implementos que predominan hasta ahora. Lo que parece indicar que no hay una industria especializada, aunque de nueva cuenta será necesario investigar más al respecto.

Esta semana nos espera la continuación del análisis y un par de clases sobre arquitectura y metodologías de recorrido de superficie en el Estado de Veracruz en la Facultad de Antropología de la Universidad Veracruzana. Quizás la próxima actualización sea un breve resumen de estos tópicos. ¡Espérenla!

Full loaded truck with ground stone

Natalia & Jonathan unloading the truck

Cleaning wasn’t that easy. The lab was full of ceramics, ground stone, skeletons, and loads of artifacts from a fascinating archaeological site called Quiahuiztlan, excavated by Mario Navarrete and Ramón Arellanos in the 90s. Our team had to undertake the difficult task of sorting and storing the materials in groups, as well as burying ceramics. Yes, burying.

Cleaning the lab

After the cleaning!!

In Mexico, once analysis is done, archaeologists are supposed to hand in all the artifacts to INAH (National Institute of Anthropology and History). However, their storage spaces were filled decades ago, so the proposed and accepted alternative was to create pottery cemeteries. Students dug a pit and poured all the sherds in there, covering everything afterwards with soil. It is a sad task but storing all the fragments would be impossible. Complete artifacts, human remains, special objects and others were stored and labeled in boxes. Once the room was cleaned up, we were able to place El Carrizal’s artifacts and start analysis. The team has been enlarged by 21 undergraduate Universidad Veracruzana students and Ramiro Vivero, all of them are helping us classifying artifacts and writing reports. Local high-school students are still helping us every after-noon.

Now that everything’s settled, let’s go back to work!

The archaeological material’s cemetery

Cientos de kilos en material lítico

Natalia & Jonathan descargando el material

La limpieza no fue nada fácil. El laboratorio estaba repleto de cerámica, lítica pulida, entierros y muchos otros artefactos provenientes de un fascinante sitio arqueológico llamado Quiahuiztlan, el cual fue excavado por Mario Navarrete y Ramón Arellanos en los 90s. Nuestro equipo tuvo la difícil tarea de clasificar y almacenar correctamente los materiales en grupos, así como de enterrar la cerámica.

Limpiando el laboratorio

¡La diferencia!

Sí, enterrarla. En México, una vez concluido el análisis, los arqueólogos deben entregar sus artefactos al INAH (Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia). Sin embargo, sus bodegas se han llenado desde hace décadas, por lo que la alternativa propuesta es la de crear cementerios de tepalcates (fragmentos cerámicos). Por ello, nuestro equipo cavó un pozo en el que vertió toda la cerámica, cubriéndola posteriormente con tierra. Es una tarea un tanto triste, pero el almacenamiento de estos materiales es realmente imposible. Por otra parte, los artefactos completos, restos humanos y objetos especiales fueron almacenados en cajas. Una vez que el laboratorio quedó limpio y ordenado, pudimos colocar los fragmentos provenientes de El Carrizal y comenzar el análisis. Nuestro equipo se ha ampliado nuevamente, incluyendo a 21 estudiantes de la licenciatura de la Universidad Veracruzana, así como a Ramiro Vivero, todos ellos para ayudarnos en la tarea de clasificar los artefactos. Los estudiantes de la preparatoria local continúan apoyándonos todas las tardes.

Ahora que ya está todo listo, manos a la obra!

Cala para enterrar lo materials arqueológicos

Indeed, as archaeologists we should provide the best care for what we unearth. This means that not only we should provide shelter for the finds, but also register them and make sure that they are still wearing identification labels (with the proper codes of stratigraphical origin etc.). So yes, a gigantic weight is lying on our shoulders, since we are dealing with years of excavated material and huge amounts of finds. For Sagalassos alone, we have 33 depots and more then 50.000 finds (and then we are counting bulk finds, registered per context, and not every sherd individualy!) But since the Sagalassos project is interdisciplinary in its origin, we went to talk to a private firm, specialized in storehouse management systems, Codisys, to help solve the problem.

This company provided us with barcode scanners, printers and labels. The workflow, however, we decided upon. We labeled the location of the finds (be it a box or a rack of a shelve or a place on the ground) with a barcode containing the by us designated code for that specific storage location. The finds themselves on the other hand are already always joined with their identification tag (containing information where the artifact was excavated, on which site, in which layer, trench, sector and of what kind of material the find was made) so it came as no surprise that we decided to put the barcode stickers on the back of these labels. Also here, the barcodes incorporated as much information as possible, being the year and site of excavation, material category, find and locus number.

From a specialized computer program, print jobs were sent (wireless) to the fixed printer in the computer room or to the portable printer hanging around somebody’s neck in or around the depots, in order to print the proper barcodes on the stickers.

In previous years, all the data concerning the finds was added manually by the depot team to the database that stored the stratigraphical information of the artefacts and their storage location. This year it was decided that site specific information would be entered by the field archaeologists. Attaching the storage location information would be done by means of scanning the find barcode numbers in combination with their location labels. As such lists were generated of unique combinations of find and location codes that were easy to import in the general depot database. First of all, it would speed up the work considerably and secondly its error margin would be much smaller since we did not have to type every single number and location code in a database. In the long run, a major advantage will also be that the depotsystem will be much more flexible, after studying some finds, one does not need to look up the old location in the database anymore, but simply put the finds there where there is space and scan find and location barcode and over the wire less connection, the adaptations in the database will happen in real time.

However, checking the old depot database and labeling all the locations and finds is almost comparable to the labor of Sisyphus. This campaign the 2009 finds were all registered in this way and also the enormous amount of ceramics unearthed in the Potter Quarter’s excavation of 2008 received their labels as did the 2008 glass and all the metal small finds excavated in between 1989 and 2003, all the terracotta figurines and half of the finds stored in depot number 3. In the end more then 7000 barcode stickers were glued. Depot numbers 5, 6, 8, 10 and 11 were completely checked and ready to be labeled next year. Inshallah…

The depot boys and girls 2009 were Veerle Caelen, Chris Putmans, Pieter Lemahieu, Roel Van Beumen and Veerle Lauwers. Additionally they could count on the generous help of the computer guys, being Joeri Theelen, Niels Claes, Simon Depas en Sam Berghmans and the logistic girls Veerle Pollet and Tine Berx.

Figure 1: Section of the mosaic floor of Frigidarium I

Figure 2: Cipollino verde tessera of the mosaic floor of Frigidarium I

Figure 3: Sham architecture fragments used as tesserae in the mosaic floor of Frigidarium I

Figure 4: Tessera with letters from an inscription in the mosaic floor of Frigidarium I

Whereas other materials were used in limited amounts for the floor of Frigidarium I, this was not the case for the mosaic floor discovered this year to the southeast of the Bouleterion on the Upper agora. With the exception of a few (grey) marble tesserae, only sandstone and limestone have been the material of choice for this mosaic floor.

Figure 5: Mosaic floor to the southeast of the Bouleterion on the Upper Agora

Furthermore, tesserae as well as mosaic floor fragments originating from the floor revetment of the large urban mansion of Sagalassos were examined. Also here local limestone was mainly used for the white and light coloured tesserae, while local sandstone was the type used for the dark coloured tesserae. As for the other colours of the floor locally quarried chert was used for the purple, yellow and coral red tesserae. Aside from chert, sandstone and limestone, once again limited amounts of grey and white marble as well as red and brown slipped pottery were applied as tesserae.

Figure 6: Tesserae made of small pottery fragments

As for the wall revetment once again the Roman bath building was the main focus of research. This year also revetment from Caldarium I and Caldarium II was examined, as well as the wall veneer from the Apodyterium, Frigidarium II and the heated passageway between the Apodyterium and Caldarium II. The stone types found at both the caldaria are similar to the ones used for the Apodyterium and Frigidarium II. With the exception of cipollino verde, which was not found in similar large quantities, the usual stone types, such as pavonazetto, Afyon şeker, Afyon gri and kaplan postu, were all well represented in the caldaria.

This year also the clamps – small metal pins which keep the marble wall revetment slabs as well as the different elements of sham architecture in place – got our attention. First of all an effort was made to locate all the clamps, as well as the clamp holes, which still remain in situ in the Apodyterium, Frigidarium II and the heated passageway. As such, patterns can be discerned, which may lead to a reconstruction of the wall veneer itself. Moreover, the technique of the use of clamps itself was examined. Striking was the use of stone to wedge the metal clamps.

Figure 7: Clamp in situ at the Roman baths

Figure 8: Clamps in situ at the Roman Baths

Figure 9: Clamp in situ wedged by stone at the Roman Baths

Finally, this year visits have been made to several archaeological sites, with the intention to get a better idea of the stone types used for wall and floor veneer at other sites. The most important sites this year were Aphrodisias and Ephesos. The visits have made clear that most stone types used for wall and floor veneer at Sagalassos, can also be found at these sites. Some stone types though, such as africano or cipollino rosso, are almost completely absent at Sagalassos. Apart from the sites themselves, also the quarries in the vicinity of these ancient towns and cities have been visited. This year the most important visit was the one to the quarries of Hasançavuşlar, near Ephesos. At this quarry a variety of the so-called Greco scritto can be found. The Greco scritto used for the wall and floor veneer at Sagalassos most probably originates from this quarry.

Figure 10: Africano wall veneer fragment

Figure 11: The quarries of Hasançavuşlar near Ephesos

Figure 12: Greco scritto wall veneer fragment

Aerial picture of the main excavation area of 2009 (left is North)

Sondages

The first sondage of 2009 at Tepe Düzen (TD1) was conducted in an area where many small pieces of metal ores and semi-precious stones were discovered at the surface during the 2008 campaign. This sondage of 5 m x 5 m, unearthed a NE-SW directed boulder – barrier – wall cut from bedrock (probably used as a quarry). The area SE of these boulders contained more cultural layers, and is deeper than the northern part. Almost all the cultural layers contained remains of metal ores and semi-precious stones (the amount decreased when going deeper). Among the cultural layers, one layer was identified as the wash-off of a processing area of metal ores, meaning that ores must have been processed in the near surroundings. The exact location of this area is to be determined during further archaeological research.

The description of a second sondage (TD2) was already provided in the previous webreport.

Large-scale excavations

The aim of the continuation of the excavations in the area of the 2008 excavations was to confirm or deny the interpretation of the architectural remains. The remains excavated in 2008 were interpreted as the long (11 m) northern wall of a building, with at approximately 4 m north of it the southern and eastern wing of a building complex with a (central?) courtyard/open working area.

In order to test this hypothesis, the goal was to determine the outer limits of the presumed building, and the nature of the open areas and/or buildings surrounding it. The TD1 team expanded the excavation area to the north, whereas the TD2 team excavated in western direction. The area to the north especially, also offered the chance to check the results of the geophysical survey.

Line drawing of the rooms and open spaces excavated in 2008-2009

In the western part of the trench, room F, which belongs to the southern wing of the building and which was already visible at the surface, was excavated. The complete area in between room F and the wall of the building south of it proved to be empty. It is thus likely that the southern wall of rooms C, D, E and F is really the southern outer wall and that there was an open space south of it. At the western side of room F, a wall-like structure, making a corner of 90° was found. The function of this structure is unclear, and neither could be determined if the building continues in western direction even further than room F.

North of the southern wing of the building, the presumed courtyard seems to continue in western direction. No structures were found in an area of almost 5 m x 5 m and at the occupation level, two rather large concentrations of ashes were found. The preliminary interpretation of this area – which now turned out to be L-shaped – as a courtyard (open space for open-air domestic or artisanal activities) thus still seems to be valid.

Northwest of the part of the courtyard excavated in 2008, a new room – Nermin’s Room- (8 m x 6.5 m) was excavated. The level of preservation of the northern wall of this room is the highest thus far excavated at Tepe Düzen, and several in situ finds were found. Along the northern part of the western wall, the remains of the surface of several plastered hearths were found. In the NE corner the base of a pithos was preserved in situ, dug out in the occupation level. South of it, along the wall, a stone bench (or shelve?) was still standing. In the 2.3 m wide door, located in the eastern wall and south of the bench, a boar skull was found. Other remarkable finds in this room were a well-preserved iron spearhead and a decorated bone handle.

Along the northeastern corner of Nermin’s Room, a very small room (I) was found, of which the door – in the southern wall – opens up to the same area as the door of Nermin’s room. The function of this small room is thus far not clear. West of Nermin’s Room, and at less than 2 m distance from it, the SE corner of another room was excavated. Since no remains are visible at the surface, it is unclear whether or not this room is part of the same building.

The stone bench in the NE corner of Nermin’s Room

The space north of Nermin’s Room – almost 5 m wide – seems to have been completely empty. It is thus likely that the northern wall of Nermin’s Room is also the northern wall of the complete building complex.

North of the open space, another room (5.4 m x 6.7 m) was excavated. The room contained a lot of sherds of storage vessels, and along the eastern wall, three circular pits in the bedrock were discovered, that may have been the original location of three storage vessels. In contrary to all door openings excavated in other rooms, the door of this room was probably located in the northern wall. A possible explanation for this odd location may have been reasons of temperature, as the orientation of the door to the north may have provided this (storage) room with a cooler temperature compared to the other rooms.

View of a section of the courtyard's pavement, the water gutter, and the staircase of the north portico

One of the two circular gameboards carved on the courtyard's pavement

The second half of the excavation campaign at the Macellum yielded some significant results. The northern half of the ca. 20 m wide central courtyard has been uncovered: the limestone pavement, the gutter collecting the rainwater falling from the portico’s roof and the shallow, 0.50 m high staircase supporting the northern colonnade were all found in a very good state of preservation. Among the specific features discovered during this campaign were two circular gameboards divided in four compartments found carved on the pavement.

The collapsed architectural fragments of the north portico

The study of the collapsed architectural members of the north portico allowed an accurate documentation of the original layout of the Corinthian colonnade. Among the discovered fragments were recorded sixteen sections of the Greek dedicatory inscription originally figuring on the architrave-frieze blocks. Referring to Publius Aelios Antiochos Akulas, the local citizen who built the Macellum, the dedication bore the erased name of the emperor Commodus and honorific formulas praising the city of Sagalassos and the building’s founder. This series of inscriptions completes those from the west, east and south porticoes found during the previous campaigns, and also proves that the dedication of the Macellum was repeated on the four porticoes surrounding the central courtyard.

One of the inscribed architrave-frieze blocks of the north portico

The excavations also shed light on the later phases of the Macellum’s occupation. The rainwater gutter running along the north portico’s staircase presented interesting elements in that respect. It appeared that two of the gutter blocks–those bearing a circular drainage hole, which were easier to remove–were at some point lifted up and put back vertically at their original emplacement. The reason behind this rather awkward operation could be an attempt to improve the carrying capacity of the drainage system. Indeed, below the easternmost of these gutter blocks – once it had been removed by the crane – the archaeologists found a blocked drainage tunnel (W. 0.60 to 0.65 m; D. ca. 1.25 m) running underneath the rainwater gutter. This tunnel must originally have ensured the drainage of the rainwater falling from the porticoes’ roofs and from the courtyard’s pavement into the underground evacuation system of the Macellum. The reason why it has at some point been blocked remains obscure. An impressive amount of finds were retrieved from this fill: no less than 219 coins were recorded, together with large fragments of ceramic vessels and butchery refuse.

During the last week of the excavations, the central tholos of the Macellum was cleaned on the occasion of the visit of the KULeuven Alumni. In a near future, the lower platform and parts of the elevation of the rounded monument will be restored.

The central tholos of the Macellum after cleaning

Dennis Braekmans investigates the subsoil at Tepe Düzen.

A wide range of mineral resources was exploited in the territory of Sagalassos, including ores, clays and natural building stones. Sagalassos is known as a large pottery producing centre, using several local clay resources, exporting its products all over the Roman Empire. Another craft activity was the melting and working of iron. Also, local limestone was exploited to be made into natural building materials, sarcophagi or lime raw material for mortar. The aim of the archaeometrical studies at Sagalassos is therefore to characterise artefacts produced by the different crafts, the identification of the raw materials used and the reconstruction of trade in raw materials or finished product. This year, archaeometrical work focussed on the site of Tepe Düzen.

Kim Vyncke in a depression in the limestone bedrock, where iron ore was extracted

The plateau of Düzen and the neighbouring Zençirli Tepe (mountain) both consist of beige limestone, overlying ophiolitic mélange (a volcanic rock). In between the two parts, a limestone breccia is present, and the Düzen plateau is bordered by sandstone. However, in the excavation layers at Tepe Düzen and in the virgin soil on top of the limestone and limestone breccia bedrock, many special minerals such as grossular (a garnet), tourmaline and magnetite (an iron ore) are found. These minerals do not occur is the geological substrate as we see it now, but most likely have their origin in a now entirely weathered (and hence disappeared) metamorphic rock. From the stratigraphy of the virgin soil and the cultural deposits, it can be assumed that these heavy minerals were concentrated by their high resistance to weathering and their high density in shallow depressions on the surface of the bedrock. Such deposits, where minerals are concentrated by their weight, are called placer deposits. These were most likely exploited in historical-archaeological times. At Düzen, traces of iron smelting were identified in previous excavation campaigns, and the exploitation of magnetite concentrations in the subsoil likely provides the raw material for this craft, though further analysis will need to confirm this. It is also possible that the grossular minerals were likewise used, in the production of ornamental materials and jewelry.

The Unmapped zone covering the large area between Sagalassos and Tepe Düzen

The area being 1 square kilometer turned out to be too large to cope in the three week period the measurements were carried out. Due to this short period of time, the fact that archaeological artifacts had already been mapped and the roughness of the terrain, we decided to measure only elevation and a dozen of ground control points in order to do the large scale mapping on the georectified Quickbird satellite image of which the panchromatic band has a resolution of 60 to 70 centimeters.

Being outside the Sagalassos city area, our first concern was to have a network of geodetic points that could be used to set up the total station and do the detailed mapping. We created this network of new points in the valley south of the Alexander’s Hill, starting from the only existing geodetic point in the Sagalassos area with this valley in its viewshed. The new points were set out eastwards doing resection well into the valley bordering the hill to its east. There, we were able to close the resection using another existing geodetic point located in the Potters’ Quarter. We took the opportunity to define several precise locations in the area of Tepe Düzen as well, but measured in the local coordinate system in use in Sagalassos today. The network of new points can be seen in Figure 2.

Network of new geodetic points set out during the 2009 topographical survey.

Having a new set of geodetic points in the area to be mapped, we started measuring the elevation of a large area covering the southern slope of the Alexander’s Hill connected to the valley west of the hill which had already been measured in previous years. The area covered and the elevation points measured can be seen in Figure 3. Having a detailed elevation model of this part of the hill and a set of ground control points, we are now able to use the georectified satellite image to do the detailed mapping. This work still has to be carried out in the remaining months of 2009.

The area in which elevation measurements were taken

Apart from the topographical survey, some time was spent to document the existing geodetic network in Sagalassos. We went searching for as many points we could find, noted down their state in a logbook and took pictures of their location and surroundings (Figure 4 and 5). No less than 80 points were found and documented in this way, some of which were already abandoned for years (due to the fact that they were assumed to have been lost). This metadata of each point’s status and the images locating them, together with the history of the point’s measurements will be stored in an easy to access catalogue before the start of next year’s campaign. It is our hope that having such a repository of information at hand, other (geo-related) disciplines will be able to quicken their fieldwork and be more confident with regard to the precision of these points’ coordinates for their own measurements.

Simon Depas indicating the exact location of this geodetic point holding a range pole

Some points were hard to find and needed to be repainted

The small scale topographical survey in 2009 was carried out by Simon Depas, Burak Duden and Joeri Theelen.

One of the palynologists at work in a pine forest on vicinity of Gravgaz marsh

This year the palynological survey took place August 1-14. The aim was to collect additional data with which a detailed palaeoenvironmental reconstruction can be made for the period from the end of the so-called Beyshehir Occupation Phase (BO Phase), which lasted from approximately 2,230 to 1,550 years before the present until the present day. Other than that, this year’s survey also served as an opportunity to gather additional present-day pollen rain data for use in climatological reconstructions.

Previous studies have revealed a strong human impact on the vegetation in SW-Turkey during the BO Phase, however, little was known about the changes in vegetation patterns after this phase and after the demise of the city of Sagalassos. During last year’s campaign, a number of soil cores were collected from various parts of the territory that were known to contain good sediments and some very nice results have been obtained during the past year. This year the main focus was on collecting data about the modern pollenrain. This data will serve as the basis of reconstructions of the historical landscape openness and vegetation as well as for use in climate modeling.

A view of the çanaklı basin from the pine forests on the east end of the basin

The modern pollen rain was recorded in two ways. Firstly a large number of moss polsters were collected. A moss polster is a sample of the green parts of the mosses that grow on stones and tree trunks. These mosses act as a sponge, catching and preserving pollen that originates from the area around the polster. Secondly a number of pollen traps were placed in the region. Such traps stay in situ for the period of one year, collecting the pollen that blow into them from the surrounding landscape. If enough data is collected from as many different surroundings as possible, a relation between the vegetation and the pollen production can be estimated, helping us reconstruct the past landscape.

A view of a pollen trap, dug into the soil near the Gravgaz Marsh

During these two weeks, the palynological survey joined the geological and geophysical survey teams to the marsh of Gravgaz and the basins of Bereket and çanaklı. At these locations, moss polsters were collected and pollen traps were deposited in as many different (combinations of) vegetation types as possible.

Apart from sampling the modern pollen rain, two additional soil cores were drilled in the Bereket basin, on a location where it was suspected that the sediments deposited after the BO Phase were superior to earlier cores from the basin in terms of both pollen preservation as well as depth. Indeed all expectations were more than met. When determining the lithology of the sediments with the aid of Prof. Phillipe Muchez, it turned out that the core contained nearly 7 meters of sediments deposited after the end of the BO Phase (until now, 3 meters or less was normal) and this material consited mostly of peat or peaty clays, containing many well preserved and large subfossil plant remains and indicating very good pollen preservation.

We continued to remove the fallen stones from the partition wall, excavating a total of five layers. We also started to reveal the well-preserved foundation of the wall. Once again, we found bones, burnt wood, and numerous sherds.

Removal of stones from the partition wall (view from the south)

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Area 2

We removed a great quantity of small, medium, and large stones in order to investigate any potential underlying structures. We found an area with a dense accumulation of at least seven vessels and various sherds. Meanwhile, we continued excavating under the removed slabs and uncovered two courses of stones.

Sherds revealed in area 2

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Area 3

We opened four more trenches and uncovered walls with white plaster. We also found a bronze arrowhead.

When one of four trenches was opened in area 3, a wall was revealed

One of the four trenches opened in area 3

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During this year’s survey, we planned to explore nine sites (see map). However, due to the menacing presence of roaming shepherds’ dogs, the site at Ispir near Ağlasun could not be checked. For all other sites GPS measurements were taken, artifacts were sampled, and pictures of the different views from each kale were taken. These data constitute the basis for the analyses in GIS, which will be performed in Leuven.

A partition wall that divided rooms 14 and 15 retained evidence of the earthquake that destroyed the site. It also prevented the excavation of the rooms’ floors. So we decided to carefully remove the fallen stones in order to continue the excavation. We took innumerable photographs of the wall and drew it in detail, stone by stone, so we could reconstruct it at a later stage. Inside the wall, we found a large quantity of carbonized wood, bones, and sherds, as well as four ceramic vessels, which may have fallen from an upper story.

Partition wall dividing rooms 14 and 15 (area 1)

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Area 2

We had started limited excavation of room 19 in 2008, during which time we uncovered a vast amount of stones with very few architectural features still in situ. Among the finds were two stone beads, a quartz crystal, and a bronze cordiform bead (see Field Notes 2008 and Special Finds).

Excavated part of area 2 (view from the east)

The 2007 geomagnetic prospection indicated there was a wall to the south of the excavated zone. So we continued to dig in that area, in order to reveal any remaining architectural elements and complete the plan of the Central Building. We uncovered a wall and discovered that a staircase may have existed on the eastern side of the room. At the southeast part of the trench, we found an accumulation of small burnt stones and charcoal in a semicircular arrangement, which may have belonged to a hearth. Above it, we unearthed pieces of clay and carbonized wood, which probably came from the destruction of a mud-brick construction. In this structure, we found 10 complete vessels, a great amount of sherds, and animal bones.

Excavated part of area 2 (view from the west)

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Area 3

We excavated this area to find the stone structures identified by the geomagnetic prospection undertaken two years ago, so we could get a better understanding of the southern part of the Central Building and create a revised ground plan. This week, we opened two trenches and uncovered a new wall. However, we did not expect to find the wall there, which means that the geomagnetic prospection did not entirely conform to the finds.

Trench in area 3

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Cemetery Exploration
Team D: Joann, Jason, Keith, Cory, Jim, Christine, and Emma

When we first arrived on Johnson’s Island, the class met at the Confederate Cemetery for an observational activity. After being divided into three groups, we were assigned to look through the cemetery and find patterns of human behavior, looking at the tombstones, observing structure and design. Then we had to come up with hypotheses to explain the patterns. This activity stimulated our observational skills, as well as the importance patterns can play in the research process. Along with looking for patterns and hypothesizing, we had the opportunity to hear the voices of the prisoners buried in the cemetery via primary documents of diaries and letters, introducing us to the men and the culture we would be learning more about as the week progressed.

Dig Bingo!
Team C: Ashley, Samantha, Adam, Mason, Branden, and Jeffrey

We chose to write about Dig Bingo, not only because we were the only ones to get bingo thus far (and we thought we never would), but because it is something that can be used for a great tool in the classroom! When we were first given our bingo sheet we assumed it was just the activity for the day and it would be no big deal, little did we know it wasn’t as easy as it looked! As we began digging and sifting as a team we soon realized how difficult it was going to be. Being a young competitive group we quickly learned the techniques to finding artifacts in the dirt. We were able to find pieces of chamber pots, possible tea cups, animal claws, parts of medical and relish bottles, and pottery to get our bingo. Getting bingo after three days of digging was one of the most exciting things about the week.

Bingo was not only a fun, competitive game but it also made us slow down and pay attention to detail. Being patient and carefully sorting through our dirt was very important. We were forced to slow down and categorize each of the objects we found and why they would be classified as they were. It was a good experience for the group and we all feel it was effective in making us be diligent young archaeologists! Games like Dig Bingo can be used with people of all age, from young school age children to older adults. It is a game that motivates students to pay attention to detail. Dig Bingo is an activity that motivated us to find cultural artifacts and focused our minds determining the artifacts’ original functions.

We had a lot of fun and got more out of digging than I thought we would! We learned to work as a group to keep our unit level, learned new vocabulary, learned the very elaborate process of digging and also the excitement in finding something as small as a piece of glass that can tell stories of the past!

Leveling
Team B: Tracey, Nicole, Christine, Sheila, Jane, and Keri

Throughout the excavation process it is important to keep a level surface within the unit. This ensures that features within the subsoil can be identified. Features are intrusions in the soil that can give clues to our findings. By maintaining a leveled surface, artifacts and features can more effectively identified and recorded.

To ensure a level unit there is a simple process to follow. The excavator begins by turning on the Robo Laser which projects a red laser beam. This projected beam is level, and by holding a meter stick perpendicular to the ground we can measure the depth reached. As the excavator continues scrapping with the trowel, the centimeters increase. Numerous and frequent measurements are necessary to maintain a uniform depth. It allows the excavator to determine which areas need further excavating.

The highlighted artifacts group B found included: a spittoon fragment, a bed pan fragment, a chamber pot, and two pieces of a hard rubber ring with silver engraved inlays. Additionally, we found large quantities of brick, flint, window glass, animal bone, and metal nails. We were able to use the level technology to record what depth the artifacts were found.

Note from Dr. Bush

I read the comments and wanted to add the picture of the hard rubber fish that Dave Fadley discovered years ago during his first experience at Johnson’s Island. We are currently using this image as part of our new t-shirt for the site. We are very proud of the Experiential Learning Program which has been developed by myself and Dr. Marcia George with the help of our able field assistants like Dave Fadley and many teachers and volunteers making wonderful suggestions. As Dave stated so well, it is not like going to work.

Hard Rubber Fish made from hard rubber and shell.

In the beginning, it all looked the same. Bucket after bucket, screen after screen, a seemingly endless supply of very small rocks filled our working days. But as we approached the end of that first week, we began to look into those screens from a new perspective. It was not simply a bucket of dirt we were sifting, it was a mysterious mix of discovery and possibility, waiting to reveal its secrets to us. Yes, there were rocks, lots and lots – and lots – of rocks, but we quickly came to appreciate their true potential, the potential to draw us in, make us question, and, in doing so, provide us a glimpse into our own history and culture.

“The most exciting find for me was the hard rubber ring.” Hannah

“I have got to say that my experience at Johnson’s Island will remain one of the highlights of my education. I have learned much in the field of historical archeology as well as made a slew of new friends. My favorite part of the curriculum occurred in the last week. Dr. Bush demonstrated the basics of flint knapping; a skill I very much would like to develop.” Juli

“My favorite find didn’t actually make it into the field specimen catalog”. Phillip S.

“The most exciting find that I found was a piece of green glass embossed with ‘PT’.” Darcy

“To me, the best part of this field school was being able to find and learn about historic and prehistoric artifacts and features. Unlike some other sites with both types, here they were independent . The prisoners and builders of the prison were probably oblivious to the Native American hearth below their feet. My favorite aspect of this experience was the opportunity to interact daily with artifacts from many periods.” Marc

“I liked this feature [the hearth] because it was visible and marked by more than stained soil.” Brittany

“The Johnson’s Island Field School was my first glimpse into the world of professional archaeology. It has been intense, enlightening, and rewarding.” Phil

“I enjoyed finding a couple of buttons which would have been on trousers. I have sewn many of these on men’s pants as a civil war re-enactor and find it interesting to discover two original versions of something I’ve so frequently used.” Beth

As we wrap up this, our final report, we consider the fact that archaeological field work is, in many ways, about numbers – 2 x 2 square meter units, N212 E140 North Easting coordinate, 84 centimeters Below Temporary Datum (BTD) depth, 12 flakes of chert found in the screen. As the 2009 Johnson’s Island Field School is about to end, and we reflect back over the past five weeks, we have decided to give you few of our own numbers as a going away present:

Number of days spent excavating on the site: 24
Number of miles traveled in the van to and from the site: 2,160
Total hours spent in the van: 64
Number of hours spent in the archeology lab: 15
Number of 2 x 2 sq meter units excavated: 15
Number of building post hole features excavated: 3
Number of prehistoric cooking hearths discovered and excavated: 1
Number of Field Specimens unearthed and cataloged: 90
Total number of Field Specimens cataloged at Johnson’s Island since 1989: 8,042
Number of bone, flint, nail, glass, brick, and ceramics unearthed by a single field team: 2,138
Number of times field crew stopped for ice cream on the way home: 4
Highest Fahrenheit temperature in degrees recorded in the work tent: 101
Number of meter sticks accidentally broken: 2
Number of stores in area selling replacement meter sticks: 0
Number of 2009 Field Crew who thinks field school rocked this year: 10
Number of who would return next year: 10

It has been a great experience, and we appreciate all of you who have been following our progress over the past weeks. See you next year!

Tyler, Phil, Tim, Juli, Beth, Brittany, Marc, Phillip, Darcy, and Hannah – The 2009 Field Crew

This ring represents one of the archaeologically significant aspects of this site. Over the years, we have recovered evidence of this hard rubber craft activity in almost every context. Even in the hospital we have evidence of their working with materials necessary for jewelry. The piece of shell noted as FS 8012 was discovered in the soils underneath Block 6, the prison hospital. As you can see from the picture, a section of the shell was cut from the rest of the piece. The cut marks are very clear and undoubtedly this piece was lost by a prisoner saving it for use in such items as the ring above. We have recovered several pieces of hard rubber waste from the manufacturing of rings, brooches, and other trinkets.

Figure 1

One of the more intriguing finds of the past couple of weeks has been the fragments (referred to collectively as the “vessel cluster”) of a Kaolin clay tobacco pipe unearthed while excavating Block 6, the hospital block (Figure 1). Kaolin, a soft, white mineral, was first mined centuries ago in China, and used as an ingredient in china and porcelain. The clay began to appear in Europe in the early 1700’s, where it found its way into the manufacture of the relatively inexpensive pipes that today bear its name.

Since the fragments were discovered in ground that would have been beneath the wooden floor of Block 6, we immediately wondered “How did they get there?”

We know that, in his haste to meet the construction timetable of less than four months from mid-November 1861 until February 1, 1862, the prison construction contractor utilized freshly cut and unseasoned wood. As wood ages over time and begins to lose its moisture, individual boards are subject to shrinkage. This can result in gaps appearing between boards – such as those used to construct the floor of hospital Block 6 – as well as cause knot holes to appear, as the knot shrinks and finally drops out of the board. Based on this, one possibility for how the fragments ended up under the building is that the pipe was dropped onto the floor of the hospital, shattered, and the resulting pieces were later swept through the nearest floor board gap, or large knot hole, during cleanup. Another possibility is that the pipe belonged to one of the workers involved in the dismantling of the block buildings immediately after the war, someone who perhaps lost it out of his pocket as he was removing the lumber.

Speculation aside, we will likely never know for certain who owned the pipe, nor how it came to end up in pieces buried under layers of earth, only to be uncovered again by the flick of our trowel almost one hundred and fifty years later. All we can do is return it as close as possible to its original condition, ever mindful of the incredible journey it endured on its was to our laboratory.

Evaluation & Re-Fitting

Having been recorded and bagged at the field site, the thirteen fragments that were once part of a fully functioning kaolin clay pipe were brought to the Heidelberg University archeology laboratory. Initial examination of the bowl fragments by Juli, Phil, and Dr. Bush (Figure 2) revealed clearly visible signs of carbon residue, indicating that the pipe had been used. Also visible was the stem hole; the stem itself was not among the recovered fragments, however (Figure 3).

Figure 2

Figure 3

Figure 4

Recognizing that sizable portions of the pipe bowl had been recovered, and using the carbon residue as a guide, our team began the process of piecing together the individual fragments that made up the vessel cluster. As is the case with any good jigsaw puzzle, much trial and error ensued, with the goal being that, in the end, all of the fragments would find a “home.” In this we were lucky, as we discovered when we finished our “dry” ( i.e., unglued) assembly, and the specimen tray of fragments was empty (Figure 4).

Having figured out which pieces went where, the only remaining step was the actual gluing process. For this we used polyvinyl acetate (PVA), a clear-drying adhesive that is particularly effective on porous materials such as clay. PVA is brushed onto the edge of one half, and then pressed against the other until the adhesive sets (Figures 5 & 6). One after another, each of the fragments were glued into their original place, until the finished pipe emerged from what before had been simply a plastic bag of disassociated parts (Figure 7).

Figure 5

Figure 6

Figure 7

And with that, “Kaolin Clay Tobacco Pipe, Field Specimen #7983”, took its place among the almost eight thousand specimens that preceded it, and we returned to the site, trowels in hand, to unearth the next mystery.

The first level of the latrine excavation

Our excitement this week has been narrowly focused on feature 40, the latrine. Although we do find important items in the hospital block, in feature 40 we are presented with a unique opportunity. We know the exact dates that this latrine was in use, affording us a snapshot in time of the everyday life of the common prisoner. What we find in the hospital block is debris that has fallen through floorboards and a few features, mostly expressed as disturbances in the subsoil. We are currently excavating one such feature under Block 6 that may be Native American in origin. We do find interesting artifacts, such as ceramics, plate glass, and smoking paraphernalia. Yet the pieces we find here are fragments of an incomplete whole. It is in the latrine that we have the chance to find items intact enough to be refitted and displayed. How exciting!

Students digging toward the next level

Think of the latrine. An open pit that no one would dare enter. Something might slip from a pocket and fall into the murky depths accidentally. A soldier in a thin coat in the middle of an Ohio winter might not even feel something slip from his hand. Anything lost here would not be recovered. In the hospital block, lost items may be noticed. When valued belongings went missing, a search was conducted until the object was again found. What falls into the latrine stays in the latrine.

Overview of the second level of the latrine

The latrine feature allows us the opportunity of a concentrated source of cultural materials. A place where we may find anything that a prisoner might carry in his daily life. We may have the good fortune to find what the soldier might lose.

The field school is divided into three groups, and we rotate to provide an equal opportunity to experience the excavations of the latrine. Every day, we excavate a few more centimeters revealing more and more at each level. One crew works in the latrine during the morning, one crew works it during the afternoon, and anyone not scraping away in this location works the open units of the hospital compound.

Close-up of bottle fragments

Close-up of a barrel band

Close-up of a piece of cut shell

Preparing the white board for archival pictures

We document every artifact we find, marking every protrusion with a push pin; as a reminder to take care and investigate further. The field specimens we catalogue separately, making careful note to document the provenience, or specific place and level associated with discovery. We take pains to photograph everything, because we cannot go back to reexamine the site. As we continue excavating, we take apart the previous levels. Without proper documentation, everything we do would be lost.

A view from the top--taking pictures of a hospital unit

In archaeology, we are only able to recover a sample of what is present. Excavating the entire site would be destructive, as well as impractical. The sample is best represented through our thorough documentation.

It’s in the field specimens, those incredibly telling artifacts of particular usefulness and uniqueness, that we find the most excitement. And the latrine promises countless specimens for this year’s team.

A sad day for the Field Specimen board (all Field Specimens are placed on this board for everyone to view during the day)

Excavation of a possibly prehistoric feature, found under the hospital block

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Historical archaeology, like archaeology in general, must focus on key aspects of research while maintaining meticulous documentation. In order to achieve this, multiple levels of technology are required. Low-tech resources such as trowels and shovels are as important as more sophisticated tools such as digital cameras and computerized artifact-mapping software. Consequently, different tools and pieces of equipment are required to keep the site up and moving (figure 1). Though digging in the ground may not seem hard, we have to be very careful not to disturb the artifacts or place undue influence on the historical record. As a result, we use everything from simple beams of wood to complex machines that shoot leveling lasers across the grid.

Figure 2

Low-tech resources are central to an archaeologist’s ability to conduct fieldwork. Some examples are trowels, bamboo skewers, small dust pans, plastic buckets, shovels, hedge clippers, improvised scoops made from used milk jugs, simple wooden planks, plumb-bobs, a grinding stone, as well as numerous other tools. The trowel is one of the key tools, being a constant on all archaeological sites around the world. The main advantage of trowels is their small size, which allows for penetration into otherwise awkward areas such as around rocks or under roots blocking access to underlying layers. A grinding stone lets us keep our trowels nice and sharp (figure 2).

Figure 3

Shovels (figure 3) do get used sometimes on the site, but only for very specific purposes. Generally, a shovel will be used to remove sod or topsoil and the corresponding vegetation to clear space for the archaeologists to actually begin excavating. Sod is too difficult to dig through with a trowel but those using shovels must still be careful that they do not disturb the underlying soil more than necessary. The aim is simply to remove any obstructive ground cover without penetrating any cultural layers. We also use machetes, a saw, and an ax during the beginning stages of excavations.

Some of the other simple tools and gear archaeologists use (figure 4) include foam knee pads, meter sticks, and wooden stakes and planks. Knee pads allow us to work for extended periods of time in somewhat uncomfortable positions. Meter sticks are invaluable in maintaining consistent levels as the excavation progresses. Wooden planks allow us to avoid stepping on “clean” units that are already at the previously agreed-upon depth of excavation. Also, wooden stakes allow for the creation of a semi-permanent grid system. Two different types of canopies are used to protect the site from the sun and rain. A weather port is utilized in our larger excavation of a section of the prison hospital (figure 5). A smaller canopy is used to shelter the somewhat fragile excavation of one of the prison latrines (figure 6). A small water sprayer is used to units to prevent drying out and cracking of the excavated surfaces (figure 7).

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Figure 5

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High-level technologies, while extremely helpful, are not truly necessary. Many tasks that are completed with such technology can be otherwise performed with simpler devices but require more time and effort. One of these tools is a total station (figure 8), which combines a surveying device called a transit with software used to map the exact coordinated of artifacts and features in the soil. An accompanying tool called a rod allows the station to zero in on exact points on the surface of the site (figure 9). Two different types of electronic levels (figures 10 and 11) are applied to the site in order to sustain proper strata, or layers, within the site.

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Figure 9

Figure 10

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Figure 12

Digital cameras (figure 12) are perhaps the most important type of high-level technology employed at Johnson’s Island. They are used to document important artifacts, specific cultural layers, and to chronicle the excavation process, similar to what we are doing here. Only a few years ago, archaeologists were restricted to film-based cameras, which could take a limited number of exposures and require a long time to develop. Before that, sites were documented using hand-drawn diagrams and maps, which could be woefully inaccurate. Video cameras add a new dimension that allows for methods to be examined by other archaeologists.

As you can clearly see, we use many different tools in our excavations at Johnson’s Island. Aside from a couple devices, all are equally important to the proper excavation and upkeep of the site. Because proper documentation and excavation methods are mandatory to a legitimate archaeological dig, these tools are invaluable to our work.

Like surfers in search of the perfect wave, we arrived this past week from distant, and not so distant places, from California and Oklahoma, Wisconsin, Michigan, and Ohio, drawn here by the perfect dig, a site unique in both the richness of its archaeological artifacts and the stories of challenge and hardship they reveal. We have come to the Johnson’s Island Civil War Military Prison site.

Illustrated here is a map of where we are excavating. Johnsons Island is a reasonably sized landmass just north of the city of Sandusky. Until recently, the only transportation to and from the island was by boat. In the 1970s, a causeway was built to service the quarry.

Just as was done by our predecessors, JI Field Crew 2009 will be posting a weekly report of our activities on Johnson’s Island over the next five weeks. After much discussion among ourselves, we have decided to take a different approach this year, and depart from the collectively written, itemized accounting of the week’s work (often chock-full of references to “2 x 1 m sections” and the “plow zone subsoil interface”) that has been the norm for field crews over the past few summers.

Instead, the responsibility for reporting each week has been assigned to one of the three “dig teams” into which we have divided ourselves, the better to work the site effectively and to share the workload. This week’s report serves as the “scene setter,” and as such is along the lines of the more traditional collaborative writing approach. Starting next week, however, each weekly report will reflect the individual styles and approaches of those on the dig team who wrote it.

Photos by Juli Six

The canopy in this photo is designed to protect current excavations from the elements.	Pictured here is our fearless leader, Dr. David Bush.	Tim Connolly sharpens his trowel before digging. The trowel is the key tool in the kit of any archaeologist.
A laser level assists us in monitoring the depth of our unit. This helpful device has been nicknamed “the angry bucket.”	The team hard at work.	Hannah excavating.
A plastic scoop is used to clear away loose soil.	Tim carefully screening the soil from his unit	Groups C and D searching for artifacts in excavated fill.
As we excavate, easily identified artifacts are deposited in a red plastic container.	Features, visual representations of discontinuity in soil composition, are marked with colored push-pins.	A completely outlined feature.
A unit’s location in space in time, known as its provenience, is recorded using a dry-erase board.	A properly marked unit, ready to be photographed	Field specimens are bagged and collected on a board for review.
		The rest of the day’s events are recorded in next week’s post.
At regular intervals, artifacts collected are sorted and counted.	Lunch is taken a short distance from the canopy.

This year we have a very diverse group of students in the Heidelberg University field school. They come from all ends of the country and have quite a varied background.

The first week we worked on the interior of Block 6. We will be continuing this part of the excavation throughout the summer. We have encountered many artifacts related to the medical treatment of the prisoners, and anticipate much more.

Beginning the second week, we will be starting on the northern half of Feature 40, the latrine we excavated half of last year. This latrine we determined was used in late 1862 and early 1863.

As always, we hope you enjoy our relating our findings to the interactive dig and please ask questions you may have in comments below.

Rhyta in Situ (Room 15)

The presence of these vessels may indicate the Central Building’s double use—as a worship and crafts center—an interpretation that is reinforced by site’s location on the route that leads to the Idaean Cave.

Detail of rhyta in situ (room 15)

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On the paved floor, we unearthed a great number of vessels: handle-less cups, cylindrical and spouted cups, cooking pots, kalathoi, jars, lamps, beaked jugs, vessels’ lids, pithoi, etc., all of which date to the Late Minoan IA period. Due to the number and variety of vessels, their positioning, and the discovery of grinders and obsidian, we believe room 15 was used as a workshop.

Paved floor (room 15)

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We also found a large quantity of quartz crystals, which may show that this was the area where the processing of such minerals was undertaken. Quartz crystals and offerings made of quartz have been discovered in the Idaean Cave and in some peak sanctuaries, which indicates that they may have been used in Minoan rituals. In addition, we unearthed several pieces of pyroluzit (manganese oxide), which has a semi-metallic shine and is mainly found in Lavrio (Attica) and the island of Melos. With the appropriate processing, it can be used to produce colors and porcelain. We also discovered bones, stone tools, pieces of carbonized wood, and a bead made of chlorite.

Quartz crystals in situ (room 15)

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During the excavation of room 19, we uncovered many large stones and identified a wall with three courses of stones. In addition, we found four handle-less cups, sherds of various types, cooking pots, and pithoi, as well as beads made of sard and agate. At the same time, Professor Sakellarakis took steps to protect the landscape and to preserve and grow vegetation in the wider area.

General view of room 19

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Currently, a group of Heidelberg College graduate students is participating in a class titled “Archaeology for Educators.” We are continuing the work at Johnson’s Island Prisoner of War Depot, excavating in two main areas: part of the hospital block and one of the hospital’s latrines.

Archaeology for Educators participants

Drs. David Bush and Marcia George, the instructors of the program, provide us educators with an experience similar to what is provided for school groups visiting the site. As an introduction, we began with an activity in the Confederate Cemetery near the archaeological site. We looked for patterns of human behavior in the arrangement and design of the cemetery. Based on our observations, we made hypotheses about our observed patterns. Next, we went to the site and were instructed on the basics of excavating. As our students would do, we were introduced to the game Dig Bingo, where when items are found they are identified and placed into a category like contraband, hygiene, or prisoner wealth.

FS 7369

FS 7368

Mike Woshner speaks to the group

In addition to the excavation, we are learning the historical context of Johnson’s Island. Each day we read primary documents such as Civil War prisoner journals and letters. We receive a multi-vocal perspective by examining the journals and letters from several prisoners from Johnson’s Island and Andersonville, as well as considering the views of Federal guards at the Johnson’s Island. We also toured the well-preserved remains of Fort Johnson. Furthermore, we examined previously excavated artifacts from the site such as various bottles, a prisoner-designed ring, and a hard rubber comb. As an additional learning experience, Mike Woshner (author of India Rubber and Gutta Percha in the Civil War Era) worked with us and spoke on hard rubber pieces from the time period. These experiences lead to great conversation and allow us to make meaningful connections to the items we find.

In Block 6, the hospital, we are continuing to uncover small artifacts, which would have been swept in between the floorboards. As we excavate to deeper levels, we continue to find more nails, brick, glass, flint, and pieces of bone. Most of the glass we have found appears to be from windows, but several pieces have been embossed from Adams and Faye medical bottles. In addition, some pieces of white pottery and yellow ware have been uncovered. Recently, we’ve uncovered mortar, glass, and an intact nail. These items in the transit have been mapped out. Therefore, we are also learning about the importance of data collection in archaeology.

Larger artifacts are being uncovered in the latrine. Several parts of pipes, yellow ware, tin cans, teeth, buttons, rat skulls (FS 7368), and large lime deposits are all currently being recovered.

“Archeology for Educators” is proving to be a fruitful class for the educators involved. We are able to appreciate the uniqueness of the Johnson’s Island site in its welcoming of us and of grade school students. As educators, we are amazed by the opportunities available at Johnson’s Island. Given the chance to engage in archeology, students are truly engaged in the wonder and joy that occur in hands-on, meaningful learning. It is an unforgettable experience.

Working at the site

by David Bush

This post hole feature (F117) has now been excavated to the actual post mold.

It seems the summer has gone again so quickly. We have had a great deal of excitement in our excavations thus far, and what is planned for later this fall certainly will be a fitting conclusion. We are down about 20 centimeters into the Block 6 latrine and anticipate another 20 centimeters to go. We are just getting to the clay layer which was placed into the latrine when it was finally closed, so underneath this clay will be the layer of “night soil” which should contain artifacts lost while in use. I expect that we will get into these layers with our students this fall.

We have also excavated the second central post hole down to the actual post mold. F117 has been exposed to the point where just the post mold is present. As you can see from the picture, left, there are many pieces of mortar in the actual area of the post. We will be excavating out this post mold as well later this year, but don’t anticipate the depth to run more than 2 centimeters.

Piece of pipe bowl (FS 7358)

One of the many interesting artifacts that we have uncovered this year was a portion of a kaolin smoking pipe bowl with an unusual maker’s mark (FS 7358). Having no luck in finding it referenced in the few books I have on maker’s marks for pipes, I sent a picture of this to Smoke Pfeiffer, an historical archaeologist who has spent much time studying smoking pipes. He informs me this mark is called “krijgsman” and is from Gouda, Holland. It was used on ceramics made between 1670 and 1887. The mark has been found on at least one other Civil War site, in South Carolina. How common this mark is I do not know at this time.

Bone buttons (FS 7151, FS 7282, FS 7378)

We discovered three bone buttons this past year from the hospital and the latrine behind the hospital. FS 7151 and FS 7282 are very common bone buttons which we typically uncover. FS 7378 is a two-hole button that is quite unusual. As you can see, the button has a different overall design as well as only having the two holes. It is in excellent shape and came from F40, the latrine. At this time I am not sure if the number of holes is significant to its use, but we will have to see.

Pieces of an Adams & Faye bottle

We have also found three pieces of an Adams & Faye patent medicine bottle from New York. This presents an interesting question as to exactly how many bottles are represented by these three pieces. One might say three, but in fact, it may just be one. Although because of the lighting used to photograph them they look a bit different, they are all essentially the same color and thickness. Therefore, since they do not repeat any letters from the two panels that have embossing, they may just represent one bottle that had broken. On one side panel is the name “ADAMS & FAYE” and on the other panel is the name “NEW YORK”. I don’t have much information about the maker of this patent medicine. This is not one of those medicine bottles from the Civil War that is reported much. This does raise the question as to why it is found so abundantly at Johnson’s Island. We have found several complete examples of this bottle in various contexts at this site.

Glass button

Finally, we have also found this past week a glass button. This is truly a glass button. Many times in the past, ceramic Prosser buttons were misidentified as glass. However, this is an aqua green round glass button with a copper loop. I believe this is the first such find we have made at Johnson’s Island. I hate to say this, but again I am not sure exactly what garment this was used with, but one suspects maybe a fairly fancy shirt. Any information for any of these items shown would be most appreciated!

As always, there will be more to come as we continue to analyze what has been found and probe further into the latrine.

This week marked the end of our time here at Johnson’s Island, and we were very busy both in the latrine and in the hospital. At the end of last week, we spent most of the morning braving the elements while trying to keep the site dry. We had people both inside bailing out water and outside digging trenches to help with drainage. As a result we worked solely in the hospital building area, but were able to get a lot done.

After we came back from the July 4th break, we were ready to get back to work. This week has seen an increase in the visitors out at the side. We currently have six teachers that have helped all week and will remain to help Professor Bush for a week after we have left. The latrine (Feature 40) was the site of a lot of activity this week. At the start of the week we reached the end of the first level (we dig 10 centimeter levels) and spent a day mapping the artifacts and rocks found in it. After we mapped everything, we switched out people from the hospital to work in the latrine. They began to start on the next level (level 2, another 10 centimeters) Wednesday. So far, some of the more interesting artifacts that have been found in the latrine are: a green glass button, a square bottom from a glass bottle, a piece of corded material, a large metal piece, an animal tooth, and two more tin cans.

Inside the hospital we are continuing to work the 2×2 meter units down to their subsoil. We have five units that have been outlined in pins, mapped and photographed. One more unit is ready to be pinned and mapped Friday. We have been using the Topcon total station to map. Three of us have also been working on postholes that were found upon reaching the subsurface. Two of these (pictured here) are the main postholes from the center-line of the hospital and one is a supporting post for the side, possibly the wall. We have learned from our excavations of these that the main center postholes are square in shape while the side ones are more round. The main center postholes appear as a large square or rectangular shape that shrinks down to a square 7 by 7 inches that undoubtedly reflects the post mold of the center post. The side postholes are mostly the same size all the way down (about 15 centimeters) and slowly start to disappear near their end.

We have all learned the basic field techniques and all feel better about this field of study. This program has helped give us a basis for future career plans and which directions we may wish to go. One of the most valuable things we found on Johnson’s Island wasn’t an artifact, but true friendships that will last a lifetime. We came for archaeological training, but we left with a family.

by David Bush

After starting our investigations in April 2008, we are now finally getting the topsoil removed and exposing the subsurface features which exist within the prison hospital block. We have completely exposed five 2-meter-square units and revealed four post holes. We have tested these and the two central posts (with the black centerline running through them in the plan) are directly in line with the other posts we have exposed the past two years. These posts are approximately 7 inches (18 cm) square, while the postholes revealing them are typically four times larger than the final post mold. The support wall posts and what we believe will be the front wall post are rounded and slightly smaller. Pictured is feature 114, the central post hole in the unit N202E142 (SW corner). This one is very typical of the type of posts we discover. They are not very deep below the plow zone. We have to excavate them about 2 centimeters at a time to eventually get the final impression of the post. From the series of three pictures, you can see that at 51 centimeters below our temporary datum the larger post hole that was dug into which the upright post was placed shows very clearly. In the fill of this post hole are bits of clay along with darker soil and even some mortar. At 54 centimeters below our temporary datum, we see the actual post mold impression. It is square and also contains bits of mortar. Only 56 centimeters below the temporary datum the clay is undisturbed. This 2 centimeter impression is the only indication of the actual size of the upright post.

We hypothesize that the small post mold impression is created by the weight of the post sinking into the clay after construction. The final small square impression is typically about 2 centimeters in depth. Although this may seem somewhat academic, the discovery of post molds does several things. First, it gives us the exact location of this particular building. Second, understanding exactly how this post hole/mold was formed may help in figuring the weight of the structure it supported. Finally, the excavation of these features by students gives them the experience is understanding how the earth is changed with every slight historic disturbance. As they go into their futures as archaeologists, they need all the experience they can gather on the many types of features they will encounter at the sites they will be exploring. Knowing that this feature changes in just 2 centimeters allows them to realize just how careful we all need to be.

Stay tuned, there’s more to come…

Plaster at the north wall of room 7, with traces of red and black color

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The excavation of room 8 had started in 2006. This year, we uncovered three pieces of limestone and two schist slabs, among them a complete handle-less conical cup. Across the east wall, we collected several pieces of white plaster with traces of black and red color. Also, we found some burnt wood, bones, and sherds, as well as a few crumbs of bronze. We continued to excavate at a lower level, where we uncovered a one-handled hemispherical cup, jug, open vessel, and some pieces of plaster. As usual, we found carbonized wood and bones. In addition, we uncovered a course of upright limestone across the western part of the south wall of the room. We are certain that these stones were intentionally positioned here in order to form a structure, which, however, we cannot yet identify. Across the rest of the south wall were several pieces of limestone that had fallen vertically. It seems that they came from some kind of structure, such as shelves on the same wall, or they may have fallen from the upper story. A socket at the southern part of the west wall may have facilitated the positioning of a wooden beam. We collected more pieces of white plaster, some of which had red paint. It is probable that these courses of stones, found across the south wall, are somehow related. As the excavation extended into the other parts of the room, we collected more pieces of white plaster and charcoal.

Room 8 during the early stages of excavation

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The excavation of room 15 had started in the 1980s, and continued during 2006 with the removal of the upper fill. This year, we removed the lower fill and uncovered numerous pieces of limestone and schist slabs. The fallen masonry was mainly concentrated in the western part of the room, whereas the eastern part was distinguished by a large, complete pithos and part of the floor of the upper story. The latter was well preserved on the top of the pithos.

Room 15 at early stages of excavation

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The excavation gradually revealed the lower part of the inner walls. Two small rectangular gaps in the masonry may indicate the existence of niches. One larger gap on the west wall was most probably a window, similar to the one we found on the west wall of room 14. We uncovered a large amount of stones, among them some bones, plaster, and charcoal. At the southwest part of this fill, four miniature handle-less conical cups came to light. It is exactly the same place that we unearthed a complete amphora the previous year. At the same level, we also found some charcoal, bones, and two fragments of white plaster. In total, we documented 67 slabs from the story’s paved floor. The small and irregular size of the stones may explain why they needed to be covered with clay, which was burnt (and is why it was preserved to such a great extent). On the surface of the clay, there was a great quantity of carbonized wood, some sherds, and a handle-less conical cup. The pithos we found took up a substantial part of the southeast and central parts of the room. It is 1.15 meters high (3.7 feet), and has two rows of handles below the rim and at the lower part of its body. At the center of the room, and in contact with pithos’ rims, we found two thin pieces of limestone that do not resemble the stones fallen from the story. This probably means that they were used to cover the pithos. At the southeast corner of the room, we found a one-handled cup and a bell-shaped cup. At the northwest side, we revealed two more handle-less conical cups. The latter had most likely fallen from a shelf on the wall. We removed the rest of the southeast fill and uncovered four more vessels: two incense burners, a lamp, and a miniature handle-less conical cup.

Fallen cups at the southwest part of room 15

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At the opening of the door, we found fragments of white plaster, burnt wood, bones, and a great amount of fallen stones from the east wall. At the north-central part of the room, we discovered two miniature conical cups, a milk jug, some bones, burnt wood, three fragments of plaster, and two handle-less cups. The excavation continued at a lower level, revealing four jugs, a bridge-spouted cup, the lower part of a stirrup jar, and a conical cup. Below these finds, we uncovered some limestone and schist slabs, which probably means that they came from a stone structure, maybe a bench. At the southern part of this fill, we found four more vessels, mainly cups, as well as some fragments of plaster, burnt wood, and some bones. At the southwest part of the room, an accumulation of four more vessels came to light. Among them were a cooking pot and a shallow angular bowl. The excavation continued mainly across the south and east walls, where we unearthed a great number of finds, including a lid, a tray, a cooking pot, two handle-less conical cups, a milk jug, and a miniature conical cup. The accumulation continued in the northern part of the east wall where we found a tray, two conical cups, a jug, and a quartz crystal. As usual, we also collected many bones and pieces of burnt wood.

Jug (room 15)

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Lastly, two more dense accumulations of artifacts came to light beneath the lower part of the pithos and the northeast part of the room, including an amphoriskos, an incense burner, two handle-less cups, a cooking pot, a shallow bowl, and many sherds coming from a medium-size vessel. We also found bones and carbonized wood.

Amphoriskos with two rows of handles (room 15)

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The excavation of room 17 had started in 2005. The research up to now was mainly concentrated on the central and western parts of the room, while the eastern part remained unexcavated. This year, the excavation continued in the lower fill of the southwest part of the room. In addition, we removed the upper fill of the eastern part. The single most important find was a pithos, which we uncovered in front of the west doorjamb. At the same level, in the southwest corner of the room, we discovered big sherds that belonged to the rim and the body of another large pithos. At the floor level, we uncovered four vessels: a jug, a beaked jug, and two conical cups. In addition, we found numerous bones and pieces of charcoal.

Room 17 before excavation

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We began to excavate the room’s eastern part this year. The upper fill was full of medium and large pieces of limestone and a few schist slabs. Despite the masonry’s bad state of preservation at the southeast corner, it seemed that there was one more opening at the southern part of the east wall. The door is 0.80 centimeters (0.31 inches) wide and blocked by fallen stones. The disruption in this fill was confirmed by the pottery, since we found a lot of sherds from later periods. Among the various finds were numerous bones and pieces of carbonized wood. Lastly, at the lower part of this fill, there were a few more finds: a sherd of a tray, a handle of a cooking pot, a miniature cup, white plaster, and a probable stone tool.

This year, we continued the excavation of passageway 16 at its southern end. We uncovered a great amount of fallen stones, which came from the upper parts of the east wall of room 15. In this fill, we found numerous sherds, bones, and pieces of burnt wood. Also, we discovered two greenish pebbles, a small black stone with reddish inclusions, and two pieces of white plaster. At the lowest level of this fill, we unearthed two handle-less cups and sherds from a large pithos. In addition, we found many pieces of charcoal, three incomplete vessels (a handle-less cup, hemispherical cup, and shallow bowl), a quartz crystal, and a fragment of white plaster.

Passageway 16 after excavation; sherds of large vessels and an inverted conical cup

In order to better understand the area occupied by the Central Building and to complete its ground plan, we conducted a geomagnetic prospection to trace any structures, mainly walls, that remain covered to date.

Orange color indicates the walls identified by the geomagnetic prospection.

]]> Field Notes 2005-2008 http://www.archaeology.org/interactive/zominthos/2006/08/field-notes-2006/ During the 2006 season, we explored five areas in the Central Building. Room 7 was relatively small and connected with the neighboring room via two openings—at its west wall and southeast corner. This room had already been investigated in 1983 when a thick layer of plaster was uncovered. http://www.archaeology.org/interactive/zominthos/?p=81 Thu, 31 Aug 2006 15:27:08 -0700 During the 2006 season, we explored five areas in the Central Building. Room 7 was relatively small and connected with the neighboring room via two openings—at its west wall and southeast corner. This room had already been investigated in 1983 when a thick layer of plaster, the biggest single piece of plaster known from the Minoan period to date, was uncovered. However, it remains unclear as to whether the plaster came from a wall or the floor, although the latter suggestion seems to be the most viable. Later on, we cleared the fill of the northwest part of room 6, and found a few small limestone and schist slabs, along with some sherds and numerous fragments of plaster, one of which has traces of black color. After the plaster was conserved, we detected traces of red and blue color, as well as impressions of thin strings, which is suggestive of the technique the Minoans are known to have used to create straight lines in a painted scene.

Room 7 before excavation

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Room 17 was once connected, via a narrow opening, with an unnumbered room to the south, along the west facade of the building. There may be a chance that a second opening existed on the east wall. In general, the walls of this room have the same characteristics as those of the rest of the Central Building, including pieces of limestone of various shapes and schist slabs. The biggest piece of limestone, at the lower course of the north wall, is 1.5 meters (almost 5 feet) long and 0.4 meters (1.3 feet) thick. At the north-central part of room 17, the four upper layers were full of stones of various shapes, which most likely came from the fallen walls of neighboring structures and the first floor. This is the fill that gradually covered the building after its destruction by an earthquake.

Room 17 before excavation

The greatest accumulation of limestone existed along the north wall; however, it was not possible to identify the floor of the story. The various finds that were revealed 20 to 30 centimeters (7 to 11 inches) above the level of the floor indicates that they fell from upper-level shelves or the floor of the upper story. Fifty-seven vessels, as well as many sherds among limestone and schist slabs, were found at the north-central part of room 17, and almost at the level of the floor. These vessels mainly consisted of handle-less conical cups, cooking pots, and dishes. A large quantity of carbonized wood and animal bones was also found, as well as a fragment of a lead object. At the south of this accumulation, and at a lower level, there was a thin layer of burnt soil with vessels in between schist slabs and white stones. There were 17 complete or partly preserved pots, most of which were handle-less conical cups. There were also dishes, trays, and cooking pots. In addition, a large amount of carbonized wood, animal bones, and some objects made of stone were collected. At the middle of the west wall, we found many animal bones, a lamp, and two handle-less cups. From various points of this fill at the north-central part of room 17, a total of 26 vessels came to light, some of them decorated with characteristic motifs. Other finds included a corroded piece of silver, an unidentified bronze object, and a stone tool, as well as burnt wood and animal bones. The great amount of bones, the cooking pot, and a number of burnt stones may indicate that there was a hearth. One of the most interesting discoveries in room 17 is a structure along the west wall that resembles to a great extent a low bench or a workbench.

Layer of burnt soil in room 17

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To sum up, room 17 produced a total of 118 vessels and many sherds of well-known types. The vast majority of them were handle-less conical cups. Three pithoi came from an upper floor since they were found at a higher level. The combination of the various finds most probably indicates that the main activity that was taking place in the interior was related to food preparation and consumption.

Room 15 is located to the south of rooms 13 and 14. The whole complex is a later addition to the Central Building. The surface layer produced few finds. We found three handle-less cups, a sherd from a pithos, and some other sherds, as well as burnt wood and bones. In the next layer, there were a lot of small stones, as well as red and green schist slabs and carbonized wood. It is probable that these stones came from the floor or other structures, such as shelves. The existence of an upper story is confirmed by the fact that many vessels, mainly handle-less cups, were found in this layer (two meters [6.5 feet] above the estimated floor level). Also, it is worth mentioning the discovery of two large vessels (a pithoid jar and an amphora with decoration) and a stone “bird’s nest” bowl. In the south wall of room 10, we uncovered a handle-less cup and a mandible. From various areas, a lot of sherds, some handle-less cups, white plaster, burnt wood, and animal bones were revealed. Lastly, part of a clay tube came to light. It seems that a window existed on the west wall, which was confirmed thanks to a gap in the masonry.

Carefully built portion of the south wall (room 15)

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The narrow passageway (area 16) that connects rooms 13, 14, and 15 was also unearthed. Part of this had been excavated in the late ’80s. The layers included white plaster and burnt wood, while on the east wall of the passageway, a small niche was uncovered with a complete beaked jug. In the same level, we found an accumulation of various types of vessels, including three incense burners, a miniature handle-less conical cup, and four unidentified pots.

Narrow passageway (area 16) before excavation

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Room 8 is alternatively called “the room with the window at the north facade of the Central Building.” The superficial layers were investigated during the first seasons in the 1980s. We started excavating the subjacent layers and discovered a large amount of stones and only a few sherds. Among the finds, there were many pieces of burnt wood, some bones, and numerous small pieces of white plaster, some of which had traces of red color.

Fallen stones from the east wall of room 8

Based on the various finds that were revealed during the 2006 season, it can be said that parts of the Central Building were decorated with frescoes. Also, the architectural materials and the various finds of the upper story can be sufficiently detected and distinguished from the finds that belong to the ground floor. In all the investigated areas, there is a homogenous picture: many handle-less cups all around the floor, large quantities of carbonized wood, and many animal bones. This great accumulation of burnt wood indicates that at the moment of the earthquake some oil lamps were in use, which means that the building was inhabited.

Apart from sieving, flotation, sampling of organic materials, and conservation of various objects, small-scale surveys were simultaneously undertaken in order to aggregate the place names and identify any potential sites in the wider area of Zominthos.

Room 14, located at the north side of the Ceramics Workshop, had been investigated in 1988 and a window at its west wall was revealed. In 2005, the first layer we removed contained a few medium- and large-size schist slabs and a few sherds mainly from cups. At the central part of the room, we uncovered an oblong dispersal of carbonized wood, which may have been the remnants of a beam that fell from the roof. Across the north wall, we revealed a construction that may have been a bench at the same level as a bench we later found along the south wall of room 15. Also, another structure may have existed at the west wall. The finds were mainly bones and carbonized wood, as well as four vessels (two trays, one kalathos, and one handle-less conical cup).

Accumulation of carbonized wood and black soil, possibly remnants of a beam that fell from the roof (room 14)

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We continued the excavation in the subjacent layer. At the area of the doorway, we recovered a large quantity of carbonized wood, which may indicate a fallen door panel. A big schist slab that was found across the doorway may constitute its threshold. We concluded that the floor was most probably made of earth, since we found no traces of stone slabs or pebbles. During the excavation of this layer, we discovered 78 complete or partly preserved vessels, including handle-less conical cups, a jug, and a lamp. Although rooms 13 and 14 were directly connected, the finds from room 14 do not seem to have been related to the production of pottery.

Threshold at the entrance of room 14

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The excavation continued in the passageway that connects rooms 13, 14, and 15 (area 16). We found a total of 21 vessels, mainly handle-less conical cups. The rest of the finds were mostly carbonized wood, bones, two grinders, and a rock crystal. The majority of the vessels came from a layer 10 to 20 centimeters (4 to 8 inches) above the floor, which means that they fell from a higher level, probably shelves of the adjacent walls.

Simultaneously, the excavation continued in room 17. The upper layer consisted of a vast amount of slabs made of red and green schist. This large quantity is indicative of the existence of a first floor, which was destroyed by an earthquake, and its wall fell at the ground floor. The sherds collected from the fallen walls have been dated not only to the Minoan period, but to later periods as well. Also, many bones, some charcoal, two pieces of quartz crystal, a cylindrical processed stone, and some modern objects were uncovered.

Upper layer of room 17

The investigation continued at a lower level where we revealed small- and medium-size stones, mainly accumulated at the northeast and the south parts of the room. After we removed these stones, we opened a test trench at the east/central east part of the room. The finds included mainly charcoal and bones, two rock crystals, and some sherds of a pithos. The discovery of pithos sherds at a higher level than the ground supported the notion that a second floor existed as well.

Test trench at the east part of room 17

The most important aspect of this excavation season was that a great number of vessels were found that date to later periods. It is probable that this part of the Central Building remained visible for a long period after the destruction by an earthquake. The latter is confirmed by the degree of preservation of the outer walls. As a result, it can be said that Zominthos was not a place of habitation during later periods, but a rest stop for pilgrims heading to the Idaean Cave.

We opened another trench at the south side of room 17, but only limited work was done. A great many stones and schist slabs were found in the surface layer. Also, a dense accumulation of small stones across the south wall seems to derive from the door that existed there. Bones, carbonized wood, many sherds, a badly preserved handle-less cup, and a rock crystal were the finds of the first two layers.

Upper layer of the south part of room 17

At the same time as the excavation, multidisciplinary research was conducted: topography, geography, and geophysics of the Central Building and the wider region; zooarchaeology of older and new finds; and archaeobotany for deposits excavated that year. The zooarchaeologists identified bones from many species, such as sheep, pigs, goats, fallow deer (Dama dama), hares, birds etc., while during flotation a lot of seeds were collected, including Lathyrus sativus, Vicia leguminosaea, Vicia ervilia, and a cereal.